Welcome	About	Introduction	Chapter One beginning of time – 999 AD
Chapter Two 1000 AD – 1399	Chapter Three 1400 – 1599	Chapter Four 1600 – 1649	Chapter Five 1650 – 1699
Chapter Six 1700 – 1749	Chapter Seven 1750 – 1799	Chapter Eight 1800 – 1819	Chapter Nine 1820 – 1829
Chapter Ten 1830 – 1839	Chapter Eleven 1840 – 1849	Chapter Twelve 1850 – 1859	Chapter Thirteen 1860 – 1869
Chapter Fourteen 1870 – 1879	Chapter Fifteen 1880 – 1884	Chapter Sixteen 1885 – 1889	Chapter Seventeen 1890 – 1894
Chapter Eighteen 1895 – 1899	Chapter Nineteen 1900 + post cinema	Chapter Twenty 1911 +	Copyright
HOTDOC Internet Archive Channel	HOTDOC X Channel	HOTDOC You Tube Channel

_{Period: 1830 to 1839}

The mid 1800’s saw the emergence of a series of studies in after-images, or Apparent Motion as it’s now called. We also begin to see the appearance of primitive motion in the form of spinning disks through the works of Plateau, Stampfer, Uchatius, and others.

The work of Talbot, Daguerre and Herschel advances the new science of photography following the death of Nicéphore Niépce in 1833, with the announcement of the Dageurreotype process to the world in 1839.

Stroboscopes and Phenakistoscopes were typical Apparent Motion disks which when spun would provide the viewer with a clear and very cool view of motion. Most were a delight to watch and many were quite humorous.

Stroboscopes and Phenakistoscopes proved beyond argument that motion pictures using the new ‘pictures from light, or photographs, was a very real possibility and could be seen as the new animated pictures.

But that was still a few decades and, chapters to come.

---

---

1830s
MAGIC LANTERN IN FUNCTIONAL ART
Beautiful and rare French fan dating from the 1830s. The handles are made of mother of pearl with metal inclusions. Notice cupid and his Magic Lantern casting an image onto a dark sheet held up by two fairies.

---

---

Magic Lanterns depicted in functional art have been seen in many hand-held fans since the early 19^th century.

---

Even an attractive souvenir fan given out as a marketing tool, at the height of Jean-Eugène Robert-Houdin’s fame at the Robert-Houdin Theatre as patrons entered the theatre.

---

The fans and other sundries were distributed as souvenirs to women in the audience. The focal scene on the recto or front side (pictured) of this fan depicts a throng of people gathered outside the Theatre Robert-Houdin’s entrance with a mile long line-up, with a street vendor brandishing placards that read “Séance de Robert Houdin” and “Programme des Soirées Fantastiques.”

The back side of the fan or verso, has French verses explaining some of Robert-Houdin’s most well-known tricks, such as the light and heavy chest, the orange tree, and the limitless bottle, in vignettes.

Theatre Robert-Houdin will become an important venue for another magician in our story: Marie-Georges-Jean Méliès, as it will become his starting point in another story of magic; magic on the screen.

1830-1932-1950
THE GREAT RADIGUËT & MASSIOT OPTICAL CATALOGUES
MARIE-HONORE RADIGUËT (1791-1867)
HONORE-ANTOINE RADIGUËT (1824-1887)
ARTHUR-HONORÉ RADIGUËT (1850-1905)
GEORGES-JULES ‘GASTON’ MASSIOT (1875-1962)
Radiguët & Massiot is a great example of a French optical manufacturing house that sits at the juncture of scientific instrument-making, Magic Lantern projection, and early cinematographic equipment.

The firm grew out of the older Radiguët family business (Radiguët / Radiguët & Fils), producing projection lanterns, lantern slides and related apparatus. They acquired the assets of the important Molteni firm in 1899, and from about the turn of the century onward into the post cinema era, expanded into film, projector manufacture and, later, radiology equipment under the Massiot name.

Radiguët & Massiot published a large, systematic series of illustrated commercial catalogues of lantern vues, projection accessories, scientific apparatus and later photographic / medical supplies.

Many of these catalogues survive in digitized form with several available as full PDFs, and are the single best primary source for what the firm offered, how slides were numbered and grouped, and how the firm absorbed Molteni’s slide stock after 1899.

---

The Maison Radiguët was created by Marie-Honoré in Paris in 1830 for the production and sale of optical equipment. Radiguët & Massiot published illustrated catalogues of views, slides and scientific apparatus. These catalogues are useful for identifying particular slide numbers, subject groupings and commercial descriptions.

Museum and collection records with Radiguët & Massiot objects include Petit Palais / Paris Musées, Europeana aggregated object records, and regional patrimoine inventories showing extant lanterns, projectors and slides.

Two examples are Catalogue No 89 and Catalogue No 38.

---

They were aimed at schools, museums, lecturers, travelling lecturers and showmen — anyone who purchased Magic Lantern programmes or needed scientific apparatus. Later catalogues show the firm’s move into photographic plates and medical material.

Relationship with Molteni

After Radiguët & Massiot took over Molteni’s fonds (officially 1899), their catalogues incorporate and expand Molteni’s slide series and photographic stock. Several catalogues explicitly identify Molteni-origin material and / or carry plates that were previously sold under the Alfred Molteni name.

That’s why researchers often consult both Molteni and Radiguët & Massiot catalogues together.

On 6 October 1899 Arthur-Honoré Radiguët associated with his son-in-law Georges (sometimes recorded as Georges-Jules or Gaston) Massiot to form the commercial concern Radiguët & Massiot; the firm also took over the Molteni house’s assets that year.

This merger explains why many Radiguët & Massiot pieces are described as successors to Molteni equipment.

---

The Radiguët family business (Radiguët / Radiguët & Fils) produced catalogues and trade literature long before 1899, but those were not issued under the Radiguët & Massiot name. Radiguët & Massiot as a named firm effectively ceased to exist around 1932, when it was absorbed into Massiot & Cie upon Radiguët’s death.

Radiguët & Massiot didn’t end with a single closure date. Instead, the firm gradually transformed over several decades as the Massiot branch took full control and shifted toward radiology and educational projection.

R&M operated under that name roughly 1899 – 1932, then continued as Massiot & Cie into the 1950s, after which the line disappears from the historical record.

1830
THE DIAGRAPH
JACQUES-DOMINIQUE-CHARLES GAVARD (1794–1871)
In the optical literature of the mid 19th century, the word Diagraph appears which has also been written as Diagraphum and Diagraphe). One such mention is in Oettermann on p52. The Diagraph was an optical tracing apparatus, used to copy drawings by purely natural projection. It was the Camera Lucida’s brother.

This transparent perspective drawing device used mirrors, lenses, and angled glass to superimpose an image for copying. Gavard adapted the optical Camera-Lucida–type Diagraph so the operator could produce accurate enlarged or reduced copies of a scene or drawing. He published and promoted the device in the 1830s and registered it in France (his version dates from the early 1830s).

---

Charles Gavard operated a print shop on Paris’s left bank at 34 rue de Verneuil, two blocks south of the Pont du Carrousel and the Musée du Louvre. In addition to being a skilled engraver and lithographer, Gavard was an engineer and inventor.

_{Left mage American History Museum, Smithsonian}

He occasionally signed as ‘Gavard, diagraph, and pantograph,’ referring to the two currencies he used to duplicate paintings. The diagraph being a variant of the Camera Lucida, when linked to a Pantograph, precise duplicates of an original might be produced in a variety of sizes.

---

Gavard reworked and combined existing optical principles with mechanical scaling into a practical instrument for mechanical reproduction. An optical prism or reflecting arrangement produced a virtual / reflected image of the subject superimposed on the drawing surface (Camera Lucida principle).

Left Image Charles Gavard, engraving extracted from Notice on the Diagram, around 1833, Paris, Fair and Thurot, Lyon, Bibliothèque Municipale. Right Image Science Museum Group.

1830s
BEFORE CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY
ERNST HEINRICH WEBER (1795–1878)
WILHELM EDUARD WEBER (1804–1891)
EDUARD FRIEDRICH WEBER (1806–1871)

These Weber brothers are remembered for their early, theoretical work on human locomotion using stroboscopic principles. In the 1830s and1840s, they produced schematic illustrations of human walking phases based on theoretical calculations, not using photography or any of the early primitive optical animation tools that were emerging.

In their 1836 publication on human walking, Mechanics of Human Walking Tools, they described how the mathematically reconstructed figures of a running man could be illustrated on a stroboscopic disk to create the impression of movement, just like Marey had done.

These “calculated pictures” showed all phases of a walking step, so when seen, the mid-stride image looked natural.

---

The record isn’t clear if they ever followed through experimentally. Enter Marey and Muybridge: Theory Meets Reality.

Fast forward to the 1870s, and Eadweard Muybridge took a real-world approach. Commissioned by Leland Stanford, he devised a row of 24 cameras triggered by tripwires to photograph a galloping horse, ending a long debate about whether all four hooves leave the ground.

The resulting series of sequential photos, known as The Horse in Motion (1878), captured the movement in ways theories could only approximate. Muybridge then converted these photos into moving animations using a Zoöpraxiscope; a projection device with painted silhouettes sequenced to mimic motion.

It’s a direct ancestor to modern film.

---

UNCANNY SIMILARITIES
While the term ‘motion study’ is more often these days associated with the work of Frederick Winslow Taylor and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth in the early 20th century, who focused on improving efficiency in industrial workplace, the Weber brothers’ research provided the fundamental scientific groundwork for understanding the mechanics of human movement itself.

This in turn, paved the way for the Chronophotographers. Prior to the Chronophotography of Étienne Jules Marey, the Weber’s did some paving of their own. Take a look at these two images. Apologies for the size of the Weber illustration, being only 200x186px, but the similarities are uncanny, 44 years before Marey.

---

While the Weber’s work shares a conceptual similarity with Chronophotography, both aimed to break down motion into analyzable phases. Their approach was pre-photographic and rooted in manual observation and mathematical modeling.

Their study focused on the mechanics of movement (e.g., likening leg motion to a pendulum) rather than visual capture.

Later, Marey’s Chronophotography (using a single camera to capture multiple exposures) and Muybridge’s Zoöpraxiscope (using sequential photos to animate motion) built on similar interests in motion analysis but used visual technology the Weber’s couldn’t access in 1836.

1830
THE BABINET WHEEL
JACQUES BABINET (1794–1872)
A physicist, a colour theorist, and an inventor, Babinet studied diffraction and interference but also designed rotating pre Maxwell colour discs and optical toys to demonstrate spectrum behavior. He built “Babinet’s wheel,” a rotating disk with alternating black and white sectors, much like a spoked wheel or stroboscope.

He lectured using these devices for public science salons, where he used rotating lights and filters to animate light effects. These were both educational and beautiful precursors to colour modulation in animated optical shows.

Babinet’s Wheel is a direct ancestor of later optical toys and moving image toys like the Phenakistiscope, Zoetrope and Coleman Sellers Kinematoscope. The concept helped define how quickly, images must alternate to create the illusion of motion, a bedrock principle of cinema.

---

Babinet’s Wheel is a relatively obscure but intriguing optical device because it’s the black and white version of the Newton Colour Wheel.

Better known as the Compensator, devised by Jacques Babinet in or around 1830 to investigate visual persistence, specifically the temporal threshold of human vision when perceiving rapidly alternating images.

Babinet’s Wheel was to test the fusion threshold—that is, the speed at which flickering light (the on-off black/white alternation) would appear to the human eye as a uniform grey, due to Apparent Motion. Remember Newtons colour disk turned to an almost pure white.

📌 A flat disk, divided radially into black and white sectors (e.g., 12 black, 12 white)
📌 Mounted on a shaft and spun at high speed
📌 As rotation increased, the eye could no longer distinguish individual segments, and a fused gray surface appeared

This visual effect occurs because the eye (or more precisely, the retina and visual cortex) cannot resolve images presented at intervals shorter than ~1/20th to 1/30th of a second

Babinet used the wheel to:

🧪 Measure the critical flicker fusion threshold (CFF)
🧪 Explore retinal persistence, i.e., how long an image lingers on the retina
🧪 Demonstrate the blending of temporal stimuli into a stable percept

Shadow pantomime is a form of theatrical storytelling that combines shadow play (projected silhouettes) with the gestural language and structure of pantomime. It emerged as a hybrid entertainment that bridged visual motion entertainment, silent performance, and optical illusion, particularly in 18th- and 19^th century Europe.

---

The Shadow Pantomime is a form of Shadow Theatre with live and highly skilled live artists executing a pantomime between a light source and translucent screen.

Shadows are cast upon the screen and the audience views the show in black and white like they would a silent movie. Shadow pantomime refers to silent dramatic scenes performed in shadow form, typically using silhouette figures (puppets or performers) projected onto a backlit screen.

It often involved exaggerated gestures, dance, and narrative tableaux, following the conventions of traditional pantomime (i.e., storytelling without speech).

---

Shadow Theatre was popular over three centuries and gave birth to Shadow Pantomime. Shadow Puppetry however is the grandfather of all, having its roots in ancient times.

The great film pioneer of Silhouette animation Charlotte Lotte Reiniger was deeply influenced by all three. Theatrical venues like the Cabaret du Chat Noir in Montmartre (Paris, 1880s–1890s) famously staged backlit shadow pantomimes using articulated cardboard figures or live actors behind screens.

Étienne de Silhouette, a French finance minister in 1759, is the source of the term Silhouette.

He became synonymous with anything low-cost or economical. Before photography, obtaining someone’s appearance with a blackened shadow against a white background ‘Silhouette’ was the most affordable option.

Shadow Pantomime is part of the visual and narrative lineage that led to cinema. It fused motion, light projection, and sequential narrative, similar to later optical toys and film storytelling. Artists like Henri Rivière and Caran d’Ache produced highly detailed Shadow Pantomimes with multiple planes and dissolving scenes—an embryonic form of “editing.”

---

---

Shadow Pantomime is a silent, visual theatre of Silhouettes, combining the narrative expressiveness of pantomime with the optical mystery of shadow projection. It is a critical transitional form between puppet theatre, lantern shows, and cinema.

SEE a modern interpretation of Shadow Pantomime superbly performed here. Absolutely amazing. How do they do this? This pre cinema art form was also known as Harlequin in the Shades.

---

---

1. On the last Sunday in April pinhole photographers across the world gather together as individuals or groups to celebrate pinhole photography day. They even gather electronically.

2. In the year 1727 Schulze proved that the darkening of silver salts, a phenomenon known since the 16th century and possibly earlier, was caused by light, and not heat.

3. Wedgwood experimented with several chemical techniques for photographically fixing images. Although he failed to create a lasting image, his research was crucial to the creation of photography in the nineteenth century.

---

4. Herschel’s discovery of hyposulfite of soda’s solvent activity on ordinarily insoluble silver salts in 1819 paved the way for its employment as a photographic fixing agent.

5. Nicéphore Niépce laid the foundations for what would become photography;
“the means of fixing spontaneously by the action of light, the images seen in the ‘camera obscura.”
– Nicéphore Niépce

6. The Daguerreotype process allowed the image seen within a Camera Obscura to be captured and preserved. The process was discovered in 1837 and made available to the world in 1839.

---

7. Photogenic drawing negatives, Calotype negatives, paper negatives, and later glass plate negatives were used to make salted paper prints. Crystalotypes, invented by John Adams Whipple, were among the first efforts.

8. Talbot began experimenting with what he called photogenic drawing in the 1830s after becoming disillusioned with his attempts at sketching using a Camera Lucida.

9. The system of Albumen printing is closely connected to Talbot’s renowned Photogenic Drawing method, which was revealed to the public on 21 February, 1839.

---

10. An Ambrotype is a type of photograph that has been around since the 1850s. It’s an archaic version of the modern-day slide.

11. Photographs on thin sheets of metal, generally iron, are known as Tintypes or Ferrotypes. They were in use from the 1850s on, and were especially popular during the Civil War because of the metal base’s resilience.

12. Woodbury patented his Woodburytype technique in 1864 as a way to mass-produce fade-resistant prints.

---

13. The 19th century saw some of the most innovative photography technologies. Photographers began to explore the creative possibilities given by different printing processes, including pigment-based printing techniques such as carbon printing.

14. In the 1870s, the Platinum-Palladium printmaking method was developed. During the process of forming the final picture, the light sensitised iron salts on the coated paper are replaced by Platinum & Palladium.

15. Those famous blue photographs.

---

16. “The immense development of photography… its importance as a medium of expression for the diffusion of thought and its profound influence exercised on the development of civilization, has given to the world one of the greatest discoveries of all time.”
^{— Georges Potonniée 1925}

17. Because some papers were designed to have properties that imitated other processes, some Silver Gelatin DOPs (Developing-Out Prints) might be difficult to differentiate from other printing methods common between 1880—1910.

18. When a combination of light-sensitive dichromate salts and gum Arabic is exposed to light, the gum Arabic hardens in proportion to the quantity of light exposure.

---

1830
SHADOW THEATRE WITH STROBING CANDLELIGHT
JEAN-JACQUES PLATEAU ( – )
Jean-Jacques Plateau, better known through the work of his son Joseph Plateau (1801–1883), has often been overshadowed in historical treatments. However, evidence suggests J. J. Plateau was not merely a passive influence but an active experimenter in optical phenomena, particularly in the early 1830s, prior to the publication of Joseph’s Phenakistiscope in 1832.

Before the Phenakistoscope, J. J. sketched a moving Shadow Theatre using a strobed candle and semi-transparent paper puppets. Details were buried in letters to his brother-in-law. Jean-Jacques Plateau was a skilled amateur mechanic, a scientific hobbyist with interests in optics, shadows, and movement.

While not a published scientist, he was very close to his son Joseph and played a significant part in fostering his scientific curiosity. He worked as a civil servant and was trained in mathematics, and his correspondence reveals a deep intellectual rapport with his famous son.

---

He was experimenting with temporal segmentation of light—a precursor to the fundamental idea behind all stroboscopic animation. This is notable because it pre-dates not only Joseph’s Phenakistiscope but also the formal understanding of Apparent Motion.

---

SHADOW PHANTASMAGORIA
Shadow Phantasmagoria is a very rare term seldom seen but used to describe similar setups and served dual purposes as a theatrical amusement for family and friends and as a testbed for studying the illusion of movement as his son dove headlong into.

The letters to Joseph (some still preserved in Belgian archives, mostly untranslated) discuss how successive positions of a figure, when illuminated with flickering light and viewed through a screen, appeared to blend into one coherent motion.

This is significance to pre cinema. Jean-Jacques Plateau’s experiments, though unpublished, were in line with a broader European interest in: Optical illusion; Mechanical animation; Scientific toys blending light and shadow.

J. J.’s work should be viewed in the context of Kircher’s Catoptric Theatre, Robertson’s Phantasmagoria and early mechanical slide projectors with moving parts.

---

What Jean-Jacques did that was new was that he incorporated controlled flicker or stroboscopic shuttering into a non-projected, near-field puppet animation.

He also used paper translucency to simulate depth and shading effects. Most of what is known comes from Joseph Plateau’s personal letters and notebooks, especially correspondence during his time in Ghent and Liège in the early 1830s.

A 19^th century inventory of the Plateau family estate, mentions a “lanterne mécanique à ombres” (mechanical shadow lantern) attributed to “le père Plateau” meaning of course, “my father.”

Another vital original source is a short note written by Joseph in a marginal annotation of JJ’s 1833 published article Mémoires de l’Académie royale de Belgique, where he thanks “mon père, qui avait, dans notre salon, conçu un théâtre d’ombres mouvantes d’un genre singulier” (my father, who had, in our salon, conceived a moving shadow theatre of a singular kind).

---

Josephs Phenakistiscope moving figures on discs is what resulted. The very idea that light, interruption, and successive stages of motion could be unified in the eye stems from these trials.

As of now, no surviving model of Jean-Jacques Plateau’s shadow apparatus has been publicly exhibited. Some researchers believe parts may be in the Plateau family papers housed at the University of Ghent, while others have speculated that components of the Phantasmagoric device were reassembled in Joseph’s early Phenakistiscope prototypes.

---

---

The focal points of the lenses most commonly used in projection are 12.5c / m to 15c / m. Exceptionally, for lanternists subject to frequent travel and having to operate in varying room sizes, long focus lenses were used.

---

Long focus lenses provided a much brighter projection, but required a greater distance between the device and the screen. To these travelling projectionists these interchangeable tube lenses were ideal.

1831 
DRIED SKIM MILK
SIR DAVID BREWSTER (1781-1868)
Brewster wrote his Treatise on Optics suggesting the ground glass plate could be replaced by a plate that had a thin film of dried skim milk (p357) when he said;

”I have found that a peculiarly effect is given to the images formed in the camera obscura, when they are received upon the silvered back of a looking glass, smoothed by grinding it with a flat soft bone. In the portable camera obscura, I find that a film of skimmed milk, dried upon a plate of glass, is superior to ground glass for the reception of images.”  

He said the portable Camera Obscura was a “useful invention”  which “delights every person.”

---

---

His reasoning was that the skim milk film gave a finer, more even surface for receiving the image than ground glass, which scatters light more coarsely. This is consistent with Brewster’s broader interest in thin films and their optical effects (soap bubbles, mica plates, etc.).

Brewster said the portable Camera Obscura was “a useful invention which delights every person.”

Brewster was a Scottish scientist seen here, young and old.

1831
THE OPTICAL PHENOMENON OF FARADAY’S WHEEL
MICHAEL FARADAY (1791-1867)
First described by Peter Mark Roget in 1824, and later by Plateau in 1828, Faraday now tests two toothed wheels with equal number of teeth, spinning side by side at the same speed, but in opposite directions.

He observes that when looking through the front wheel’s teeth, through to the back wheel that’s also spinning, the back wheel appears to be absolutely stationary. This optical phenomenon is related to cinema by the fellow phenomenon of Apparent Motion.

---

This deceptive observation was also seen by Faraday if only one wheel was rotated in front of a mirror, the image reflected would replace the second wheel and provide the same outcome. In the Paolo Leo work Magia Della Luce, Leo states it was Plateau who was inspired first of Faraday’s wheel in 1830.

This image is Faraday’s Wheel using a mirror, from Animated cartoons How they are made, their Origin and Development, Edwin George Lutz, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920, p20.

---

Narrow slots were carved around the disks’ circumferences at equal intervals, giving the solid parts between them the appearance of teeth or wheel spokes. When this machine was set in motion and the eye was directed through the moving and blurred teeth of the front disk to the far disk, the far disk appeared motionless.

Its outline—the teeth, slots, and circumference—were clearly visible and not obscured.

---

The Langhans Pleorama was the Barker Panorama on water. Like the Mareorama which I will speak on later, the audience in the Pleorama sat in a floating boat surrounded by a Panorama providing a distinct impression of sailing around in a Bay.

Claudia Kamcke and Rainer Hutterer in their History of Dioramas published in 2015 in chapter two described the Pleorama as;

---

Carl Ferdinand Langhans created the Pleorama, which was first shown to an amazed audience in Breslau in 1831. The influence on the viewer was described in the Breslauer Zeitung on 11 June 1831 as;

“After many costly and laborious trials, this ingenious invention has now reached maturity.

An unbroken series of pictures, stretching for several hundred yards, offers not only individual views of Naples, but actually moves the entire scene past us, so we experience it by embarking at Procida and travelling for several miles past some of the most famous landscapes in Europe, under glorious weather conditions.

The mechanical devices responsible for the illusion of gliding past these shores (hence the name Pleorama) are so ingenious, and their effects so striking, that we actually feel we have been transported to a natural world unfamiliar to landlocked Europeans like ourselves.”

---

the Pleorama is one of the first glimmers of an illusionistic motion-art that would find its perfect form a few decades later with the advent of cinematography

---

Langhans was a Prussian architect with a special interest in theatre architecture. His background in this was instrumental in his Pleorama making its first appearance in Breslau in 1831.

Below is the Berlin palace of Kaiser Wilhelm I which Langhans designed.

---

---

1832
SIR CHARLES WHEATSTONE (1802-1875)
Wheatstone had been working on his idea of a projector-type system that would present photographs Stereoscopically but without any form of movement. He commissions an optical maker in London to construct two of these devices.

---

With reference to Wheatstone and binocular vision, these four excerpts are from The History of Photography – From the Camera Obscura to The Beginning of The Modern Era, Helmut & Alison Gernsheim, Thames and Hudson, London, 1969, pp253, 254.

---

---

---

---

---

Many of the first Stereoscopic photographs taken have been lost, but pictured are two Daguerreotype Stereoscopes for the Wheatsone Stereoscope showing Sir Michael Faraday.

Image Denis Pellerin, Stereoscopy- the Dawn of 3-D a lecture at Kings College.

---

Here from Sir Brian May’s collection, a Brewster Stereoscope sitting on a Wheatsone Stereoscope. It’s the only photograph of a Wheatsone Stereoscope ever found.

Image Denis Pellerin, Stereoscopy- the Dawn of 3-D a lecture at Kings College.

---

Another from Sir Brian May’s collection, a Daguerreotype taken by Antoine Claudet of a Wheatsone Prismatic Stereoscope on the left and a Brewster Stereoscope on the right (of the same image).

Image Denis Pellerin’s Kings College lecture.

---

---

---

This is Wheatstone’s prototype Prismatic and Lenticular Stereoscope (in a Stereoscope itself), from the 1830s, residing at Kings College London.

^{Images from Denis Pellerin}

---

---

A great-grandchild of Stereo Pictures is the child’s toy Viewmaster and is attributed to William Biller Gruber (1903-1965).

It was first introduced at the New York World’s Fair in 1939.

---

Sir Charles Wheatstone below, the father of modern Stereoscopy, and one of the most magical inventions of all time– the Stereoscope. Photo by the original London Stereoscopic Company/Hulton Archive/Getty Images.

---

WATCH the Denis Pellerin / Sir Brian May lecture at King’s College from 2021 here called Stereoscopy – The Dawn of 3D. Produced by the British Library.

1832 
JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND PLATEAU (1801 – 1883)
Plateau constructs what he called a Phenakistoscope.  He later named it a Fantoscope but this should not be confused with Robertson’s Phantoscope which has been written as Fantoscope. More will be exposed on the Robertson Fantoscope in future chapters.

NOTICE the water is coming up, from the bucket and not down from the spout into the bucket. Plateau it seems had a comical side to him. Motion Pictures 56 years before Le Prince. Sixty-one years before the Kinetoscope. Thirty-seven years before Thomas Ross.

^{A man pumping water and a man playing guitar}

The Plateau contrivance consisted of a series of drawings or painted pictures of figures in steps of motion. A Phenakistoscope by itself, had two disks with the inner disk holding the pictures in order on the rim, and the outside disk, which the viewer looked through, one at a time.

“WHAT honor we might give him as a benefactor to the human race, if we could only trace to one man the fundamental invention of the moving picture !” – Ben J. Lubschez, Introductory remarks, The Story of The Motion Picture 65 B C TO 1920 A D, Reeland Publishing NY, 1920.

---

the Phenakistoscope disk provided a one second glimpse into the future of cinematography

---

---

In 1832 Joseph Plateau made his Phenakistoscope or, Phenakistiscope if you like. This cute little Plateau-honouring video has some Bury and McLean disks included, but hey, it’s a lot of fun. I will talk about Bury and McLean and Stampfer, later. Sound on.

The Plateau disks shown, are from the Noel Collection.

---

---

---

---

RIGHT Notice that this Joseph Plateau fencer steps backward as he lunges forward in true fencing fashion, and the inner circle gloves that are on top of two bent foils, turns right.

LEFT The Simon Stampfer disk of a Cavalier riding a horse and playing a horn. Notice that the up and down motion of the rider in the saddle, is perfectly in tune with the slit so his head bobs down to miss it each time.

---

---

Here are eight Simon Ritter von Stampfer Stroboscopic disks authenticated through the Trentsensky and Vieweg Collection at Princeton University.

---

Plateau was one of the first demonstrators of how moving pictures may be generated and form an illusion with a single image. He was highly inspired to study motion and the subsequent Apparent Motion by his father, whom I have a series on at the 1830 mark of this chapter above.

Stampfer’s device was patented in Austria on 7 May, 1833 and he licensed a Vienna print shop to sell his “Optical Magic Disc” which he called it.

---

Letters On Natural Magic, by Sir David Brewster was addressed to Sir Walter Scott and is a fascinating book on many subjects within physics/optics and has numerous graphics. It was published by John Murray, London, 1832. Read pp154 and 155 below.

---

On pp160 and 161 is another illustration of a mobile Magic Lantern on wheels, from Brewster’s book Letters on Natural Magic in 1832.

---

---

The dictionary identifies Phantasmagoria as;

🎞️ “having a fantastic or deceptive appearance, like a dream or created by the imagination.”
🎞️ “the appearance of an optical illusion, especially one produced by a magic lantern.”
🎞️ “shifting, as a scene made up of many elements.”

---

Phantasmagoria is also a “delusive appearance” and “a figment of the imagination” or a “mental representation of a real object.” Below, four of the twenty-three beautifully hand-painted Phantasmagoria lantern slides from the Thomas Weynants Collection.

When you get to chapter twelve and the year 1850, I will tell you all about what happened in 1991 and the Moisse Fantascope discovery by Thomas Weynants.

---

From the Instituto Hercule Florence in Brazil, we have this passage from the written works of Hercules Florence which enlighten us on just one of the important aspects of his work;

---

---

---

Having multiple interests, Hercule Florence conducted most of his work in photography. In 1833 in the then village of São Carlos (Campinas) he was looking for alternative processes for graphic printing.

Florence wasn’t a photographic pioneer at first. He was a draughtsman employed between 1825 and 1829 to record the Langsdorff Expedition to Amazonia, by the Baron of Langsdorff, the Russian consul general.

Florence sailed for Brazil 1 May, 1824 staying until his death in 1879.

---

---

OUT OF THE SHADOWS OF HISTORY
He built a Camera Obscura and began printing experiments as early as 1832-1833. Florence conceived of two different printing methods;

🎞️ Polygraphia
🎞️ Photographie

His only exposure was a published account in the 29 December, 1839, Rio de Janeiro Journal do Commercio.

---

The 29 December 1839 Rio Journal do Comercio “we must add the following article, which, under the title — Discovery of Polygraphia — where it appears signed by Hercules Florence . . . and decide whether the world owes the discovery of Photographie . . . to Europe or to Brazil.”

---

Florence is quoted in the article as saying many favourable things about his work—things that would cause us to consider re-writing the history of photography;

From the limited bits and pieces of information that exist and these words from Florence himself, I have deduced that his interchange of words Polygraphia and Photographie are possibly the same as Niépce’s use of Heliography and Photography.

In 1830 he was searching for a way of printing his Langsdorff Expedition illustrations –over 200 of them. His process was the Polygraphia.

By 1832 Florence began to permanently fix Camera Obscura images. He called this Photographie.

---

Florence did not intend to pursue a claim of invention because;

🎞️ he never sufficiently disclosed his idea
🎞️ he was a little-known inventor who lived in an isolated, underdeveloped region of the world

In the 1970s the work of Hercules Florence was rediscovered.

---

Below is Hercules Florence’s Photograph of Nine Pharmacy Labels – c.1833 using his Polygraphia process.

It’s a contact copy on photosensitive paper and resides at Collection Instituto Hercule Florence, São Paulo.

---

A Physautotype is an early photographic process developed around 1832 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce, possibly in collaboration with Louis Daguerre. It used a photosensitive layer made from lavender oil residue dissolved in alcohol, coated onto a silver or glass plate.

After drying, the plate appeared powdery white and was exposed in a camera obscura for several hours (typically 3–8 hours, depending on light intensity).

---

The plate was developed using petroleum-based spirit vapors, which made less-exposed areas more transparent, creating a positive image when viewed against a darker background.

---

This correspondence between Niépce and Daguerre on the creation of their Physautotype, translated here.

---

---

In 2004, Jean-Louis Marignier reconstructed La table servie. Marignier photographed the table with the very same process invented by Niépce and Daguerre. Below left a digitized original copy, and right the reconstructed Physautotype.

---

Watch here, an eleven minute video produced by Maison Musée Nicéphore Niépce (Nicéphore Niépce’s House Museum) on the Restoration of the house, and in particular the workshop in Saint-Loup de Varennes and, the window from which “Le point de vue de la fenêtre,“ or “view from the window,“ was taken in 1826.

In 2000, this film premiered at the;

📷 open-air Roman theatre Rencontres Internationales de la Photographie (RIP) in Arles;
📷 it was nominated in 2001 at the International Scientific Film Festival in Orsay,
📷 as well as in 2002 at the 7th research film festival in Nancy
📷 and also shown in 2003 at the international congress dedicated to Nicéphore Niépce, At First Light, organized by the Getty Research Institute and the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center in Austin, Texas

^{– Maison Musée Nicéphore Niépce}

In 1999, Pierre-Yves Mahé, the creator of the Spéos photographic school, rented a section of the Gras estate where Niépce had set up his laboratory-workshop in Saint-Loup de Varennes.

Since the inventor’s death in 1833, Mahé was the first photographer to occupy the premises. Until then, the historical mansion had remained unexplored, except by two historians; only Mahé and Helmut Erich Robert Kuno Gernsheim in the 1950s.

They reproduced Niépce’s working conditions and rediscovered the site of his experiments with the help of Marignier, a scientist at the French National Centre of Scientific Research.

Some sources suggest confusion with the term ‘physiotipe,’ which refers to a related process using only lavender oil residue, attributed to Daguerre alone. The Physautotype however, specifically involved a combination of petroleum oil residue (bitumen) and lavender oil residue, with the petroleum component being the primary photosensitive agent.

What you’re seeing is the upper half of one side of this Periphanoscop disk showing in sequence three men lifting upward to the man above, one rock at a time from a pile at the feet of the bottom man, to the middle man and then to the top man where the rock lifted seems to magically disappear.

Here is how the museum explains it;

“Due to the endless repetition of the 10 frames, the amount of rocks at the bottom never diminishes, so it’s slightly awkward how the rock that is grabbed seems to get magically replaced with an identical one. When it is lifted to the top the of the disc, the rock just disappears. These minor problems prove how difficult it actually is to design a totally convincing animation loop.”

^{– Magical Media Museum}

---

The museum has named this disk the bucket brigade. The Apparent Motion phenomenon took flight with the work of Roget, Plateau, Stampfer et al, but it was with these disks of motion that created a gravy train of knock-offs that were very good in their construction. I will be talking much more on this entry in pre cinema history as the decades unfold. Stay tuned.

1883
FROM THE PHOTOMATON TO THE SELFIE
PERCIVAL LOWELL EVERETT (1833-1908)
The Photomaton, known by a myriad of other names like picture booth, photo box, or photo cabinet, has progressed into an indispensable tool under the sub genre of candid photography. Today, these 150+ year-old machines can still be found largely at malls, but more importantly, right in your pocket.

They’re called smartphones, and they take what we call selfies. Percival Everett is believed to have made the first selfie machine in 1883 but I’ll be darned if I can find any imagery. It was coin operated, and many of these early contraptions prepared Ferrotype / Tintypes.

---

---

By the time the 20th century had arrived, Photomatons were in almost every country in the world

---

1889
THE SWISS-PATTERN PHOTOMATON
THÉOPHILE-ERNEST ENJALBERT (1847–1894)
What is identified as the world’s best earliest Photo Booth or Photomaton, is seen at the Exposition Universelle of 1889, better known as the 1889 Paris Exposition, a world’s fair held in Paris, France, from 6 May to 31 October 1889. He received patent № 436627 on 16 September 1890.

Not only could patrons see the new Eiffel Tower, but instead of attending a Photographic Salon to get their picture taken, they could now sit privately for five minutes and get what was quickly called the “automatic camera.”

---

The machine was described in Enjalbert’s patent application as “Apparatus for receiving coin and for producing and delivering photographs in exchange therefor.”

Many other pioneers contributed their versions of the Photomaton, aiding in the better construction by the time the 20^th century arrived such as the Muscovite Anatolу Markovich Yozefovich and the German-born Chicago-based photographer Mathew Steffens, in 1889.

---

THE BOSCO PHOTOMATON
In 1890, a German named Conrad Bernitt duplicated Enjalbert’s invention and submitted a patent for a similar device. In 1893, he showed his Bosco Photomaton at the first International Amateur Photo Exhibition in Hamburg.

The patron could receive his portrait upon introducing a 10-cent coin and waiting a few minutes. The Bosco Photomaton, hailed as an ‘attraction,’ more so than a service-providing apparatus, frequently appeared in amusement parks and fairgrounds.

The bronze and gold coloured cards would be on the back of the photograph.

---

The Photoautographe, a semi-automated device created by Barcelona native Juan Ferrer Y Girbau, was depicted and discussed by La Nature in 1895. Almost unknown outside of Spain, this watchmaker was a recognized professional in his field.

Especially interesting is his ability to combine fine mechanics and photography in the same cabinet. Pictured is the Ferrer Photoautographe and patent.

---

By the time the 20th century had arrived, Photomatons were in almost every country in the world. A Photomaton concession placed next to the Strand Theatre on Broadway NY in 1932 was so successful it kept the owner’s extended family comfortable throughout the Great Depression.

At the cost of a dollar, you would receive a strip of eight selfies – in a process that had gone from about 5 minutes, to roughly 8.

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

This is Thomas Talbot Bury’s hand-painted Fantascope disk of 1833 simply called A man on a bicycle. Notice the four separate circles of movement.

🎞️ white semi-circles separated by a black dot, moving clockwise
🎞️ black triangular spikes moving clockwise with intermittency
🎞️ blue, tan, and yellow diamonds moving outwards
🎞️ man on a velocipede (todays bicycle) going clockwise

Plateau and Stampfer typically had one or two action rings. Here we see four from Bury.

---

COMPARISON
On the left is Joseph Plateau’s Phénakisticope disk of the Jumping Monkey.

On the right is the Dancing Monkey Fantascope disk of Thomas Bury.

Each has been authenticated and verified as their own, by Ghent University (Bury), and for Plateau, Ghent University and University of Edinburgh Heritage Collection.

---

---

McLean’s Optical Illusions were sold as a boxed set of twelve hand-coloured lithograph nine and a half inch disks. A jockey on horseback, a dancing couple, a leaping horse, a juggler, an equestrian, a woman beating a man, a girl on a swing, birds and butterflies, and a hoping Napoleon were the standard carte du jour.

---

---

The etymology of the word Phénakisticope is based in the ancient Greek meaning to cheat or deceive (φενακιστής).

McLean’s premises were located in the Haymarket. He was a respected dealer of art and prints.

---

---

---

---

---

---

---

^{Animation Tangible Media}

---

1833
THOMAS MANN BAYNES (1794–1876)
A lithographer, publisher, writer, translator, painter and exquisite illustrator, Baynes jumped on the Phenakistiscope gravy train in 1833 with the help of Ackermann and Company.

Running rats is an authenticated Baynes disk. His work helped popularize this optical toy, which was among the earlier devices to create the illusion of moving pictures. Baynes designed several discs published by Ackermann & Co. in London.

These were among the first commercially available animation devices. His sets were marketed as “Magic Disks – an entirely new invention,” sometimes bilingual (English/French), and even sold in France by Alphonse Giroux. – Bill Douglas Centre

---

By producing discs for Ackermann, Baynes helped bring animation into middle-class parlors as a novelty item. Thomas Mann Baynes stands out as one of the earliest artists to make animation a form of entertainment, bridging fine art and optical science. His Phenakistiscope disks are now treasured artifacts in cinema history museums. His artistry combined with Plateau’s invention shows how creative design was essential to making animation appealing.

---

Baynes likely created other disks other than these additional three, but I cannot find any:

🎬  a man stuffing himself in front of a rat (authenticated by Photographic Agence)
🎬  a cat chasing a bird (authenticated by Meister Drucke)
🎬  a dancing couple (authenticated by Oxford Science Archive / Prints Collector / Getty)

---

Uchatius is credited with inventing an early motion picture projector, the Nebelbildapparat (fog picture apparatus), around 1845–1853. Combining Simon Stampfer’s Stroboscope and Joseph Plateau’s Phenakistiscope with a Magic Lantern, he presented a projected animation in 1853 to the Vienna Academy of Sciences.

Named the Kinetoscope at first, it was used for ballistics lectures but marked a significant step in cinematic history. He also experimented with early photography, producing Daguerreotypes, but sold the rights to Ludwig Döbler, underestimating their commercial potential.

Uchatius lined up several Magic Lanterns each containing a single sequential image pointing them each at the same point on a wall. He took a candle and moved one to the other, attempting to illustrate sequence motion.

One prominent pre cinema historian says he accomplished his goal, one says it was not too successful, and another one doubts it.

Enter a man I’ll introduce you to later, one Ludwig or Leopold Dobler, a brilliant magician and showman in his own right who, it is written, purchased one of the first manual image sequence projectors ever made, possibly spelt Fenakitiscopio, otherwise Phantaskop.

It was a projector developed by our Army officer Franz von Uchatius.

This sketch you see is from stephenherbert.co.uk which is no longer complete since his passing. It’s apparently a depiction of Uchatius and a domestic moving image show with what appears to be two officers in attendance. The man at the rear of the projector appears to be cranking it.

Is that Ludwig and Elise seated near the screen?

---

---

Dobler predicted the device’s utility for entertainment upon seeing von Uchatius’s innovation, and in the following years he himself developed popular displays of images that merge one after another in projections as part of his magic programme. Stay tuned for more on Dobler.

---

---

Kenneth MacGowan from his Behind the Screen (Dell Publishing, New York, 1965) also chimes in;

---

---

The question of whether Uchatius did in fact present his projected motion pictures to witnesses, appears to have been answered by the work of historian Deac Rossell who documents at least two instances in 1853 as we see from his research;

More on Uchatius in chapter twelve.

---

According to Instituto Hercule Florence, Florence’s first used the word photography (or photographie in Portuguese) in 1833, at least five years before Johann Heinrich von Madler in 1839.

As the Instituto states, Hercule Florence;

---

---

I commend Instituto Hercule Florence for sharing this. This discovery means that Florence used the word photographie earlier than Madler and just six months after the death of Joseph Nicéphore Niépce who died 5 July, 1833, and used the word Heliograph.

And now, international experts have analyzed some of the earliest surviving photographic artifacts from the work of Hercule Florence.

Something many of us have known and believed for some time; that the photography carried out by Florence in the 1830s is authentic.

---

this solitary discovery of photography in Brazil between the years of Niépce and Daguerre is significant in the history of world photography

---

The research was carried out by the;
📷 Getty Conservation Institute (GCI) in Los Angeles
📷 Hercules Laboratory the University of Évora, Portugal
📷 Institute Hercule Florence (IHF) São Paulo, Brazil
📷 Instituto Moreira Salles (IMS) in Brazil

Florence’s progenies have conserved much of his legacy through their work at the IHF and through private assets.

Pictured is Antonio Florence, great grandson of Hercule Florence and the founder of Instituto Hercule Florence in São Paulo, Brazil.

---

---

---

Horner will publish a full description of his appliance in the Philosophical Magazine. The word Daedaleum is interpreted as wheel of the devil.

Pictured here is a clipping of Horner’s partial description for the Daedaleum, taken from Deac Rossell’s 2022 book Chronology of the Birth of Cinema 1833–1896 on page 5.

The names Daedaleum and Zoetrope are interchangeable today and have been pretty much since Lincoln’s version hit the market in 1867, with just a tiny variation which I will explain in that chapter.

For now, if you are searching for Daedaleum online, you will 95+% of the time get Zoetrope images. The astute eye will know the difference even though they both present the very same motion in the very same way.

---

---

Here’s a perfect example of what I just stated, from the professional realm. Julius Pfragner in his The Eye of History, (in the Index section), on p223 incorrectly calls this image below, Horner’s device.

Even though Horner did at first call his Daedaleum a magic drum before going with Daedaleum. But this image is in fact a William Lincoln Zoetrope.

Correct information, wrong image.

---

The name Zoetrope is composed of the Greek root words zoion and animal, ζωή (zoe), or life and τρόπος (tropos), meaning turning.

Walt Disney was a great fan and a custodian of pre cinema. Here, he’s holding a Zoetrope strip from one of his TV episodes in the 1950s.

---

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE!
People ask what is the difference between a Daedaleum of Horner on the left, and a Zoetrope of Lincoln right. Let’s remember, they are the very same optical device.

Lincoln made two changes; he placed his images below the slits, and he changed the name.

That’s all.

---

Here is some clarity on differentiating between the Daedaleum of Horner and the Zoetrope of Lincoln.

---

---

---

---

The Talbot Mousetrap reminds me of the Thomas Sheraton Optical Box of 1770 which I mentioned back in chapter seven. Measuring 2 x 3 x 3 inches it was a sensation in its time. This tiny little optical box pictured here, is quite similar to the Sheraton one.

It contained around fifty openwork and perforated optical views. More like a matchbox than a mousetrap. It’s from Augsburg Germany, by Martin Engelbrecht and is dated to 1730. What’s unfortunate is that none of the photographs I have offer anything for scale, like a hand.

^{Photo Stéphane Dabrowski © The Cinémathèque française}

---

This Scot devised the idea of building a contraption that would allow two separate and dissimilar images to be seen side by side, creating the illusion of an object with relief in the same manner as our eyes do.

---

While Elliot conceived of the idea and designed an instrument, Sir Charles Wheatstone is generally credited with inventing the first functioning stereoscope (a mirror stereoscope) and presenting it in 1838. Wheatstone’s device was more robust and allowed for experimental work on binocular vision.

---

Elliot’s prototype was described as a simple, fixed septum dividing paired drawings, without optics. Sir David Brewster later developed a more practical and popular lenticular stereoscope in 1849, which became widely adopted.

Brewster championed Elliot’s claim to priority over Wheatstone. So, while James Elliot did have the idea and design for a stereoscopic device around 1834, Wheatstone’s work in 1838 is typically recognized as the first functional and publicly demonstrated stereoscope.

I have not been able to locate any image of the Elliot Stereoscopic device.

Stereoscopy is not a new topic at this point in time in this study. Afterall it has been considered and thought on for about one thousand years by now. Not well understood until this century, it will now be viewed and studied as a serious requirement for the future of cinematography by men like Elliot and Wheatstone.

Much more to come on this fabulous topic of bringing stereovision to the silver screen.

---

---

1835
WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT (1800-1877)
Talbot made the photograph negative on paper known as a Photograms within a Camera Obscura. The frame was one-inch square and was of a latticed window in his home known as Lacock Abbey.

The August 1835 photonegative on paper that Talbot produced is extant and resides in the National Science and Media Museum Bradford U.K.

A digitized image of this Latticed Window photogram the way it looked in its original state below. Although named Latticed Window, within Lacock Abbey it was known as The Oriel Window, South Gallery.

---

so clear was Talbot’s original Photogram of the Latticed Window at Lacock Abbey, that every small pane of glass could be counted

---

One of Talbot’s discoveries was the unique property of potassium dichromate and how it would harden colloidal gelatin in correct ratio according to how much light was exposed.

Below, the photo-negative on the left and positive following restoration on the right.

---

---

Below is a digitized image of the photo-negative of Talbot, attached to his personal notes on the Photogram of the Latticed Window from August 1835, one hundred ninety years ago as of 2025.

What Talbot scribbled on the note was . . . “Latticed Window (with the Camera Obscura) August 1835 ─── When first made, the squares of glass about 200 in number could be counted, with help of a lens.”

---

Just two years before Talbot took the 1835 Latticed Window Photogram at Lacock Abbey, he said the following even though Nicéphore Niépce had done so seven years earlier in 1826, and Talbot knew it;

---

Below is how that same window looks quite recently, showing two photographs from the inside where Talbot took the Photogram now known as a Talbotype.

---

So clear was Talbot’s original Photogram of the Latticed Window at Lacock Abbey, that every small pane of glass could be counted. There were two hundred panes, exactly as Talbot had written on the note card attached to the photo-negative.

I counted them myself and you can as well; Save the largest pixelated image you can find. Open and enlarge it. You can easily count the panes.

1835
This is a Silhouette print by silhouette artist Auguste Amant Constant Fidèle Edouart (1789–1861) that he called The Magic Lantern for obvious reasons c. 1835. The medium is cut paper and wash. It measures ten and a quarter by thirteen and a half inches.

^{Image The Met}

The fine hand writing at the bottom border tells the card holder that a Galantee So Savoyard presents a Magic Lantern program while a sitting one-legged man in the left corner plays music on an organ.

Auguste Edouart enjoyed his artistic skills so much he quit Napolean’s army he left France and moved to England to pursue his craft.

1835 
LOUIS JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE (1787 – 1851)
Daguerre is able to produce an image after exposing mercury vapor to a treated silver iodide plate. Daguerre was aware that light exposure may result in a latent image, one that did not become visible until other chemicals were applied.

Sometime during this year he discovered that mercury vapor made his latent images appear more vibrant on a copper plate that had been coated with a thin layer of silver dust. Using a salt solution Daguerre will start fixing his images.

1835
WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT (1800-1877)
Before the modern age of plastic and metal cameras, even Camera Obscuras were hand-crafted instruments of beauty–finely polished woods, brass, and leather. The golden age of wood cameras lasted from well before the birth of photography right up to the early part of the 20th century.

---

---

Talbot’s Mousetrap – invented in 1835 featured a removable paper holder and a hole fitted with a brass cover through which one could check for proper focus and exposure. This Camera Obscura featured here in two angles, owned by Talbot, from 1820.

A simple camera, the device lacks the lens that would have focused a picture on the glass screen in the top.

^{Images SSPL / Getty}

---

Around this time, we begin to see the word obscura slowly slip out of our lexicon both in the written and spoken word.

Within the emergence of this new photographic world, the word Camera begins to appear by itself more often when speaking of photography.

---

---

---

Talbot’s cameras with Calotype peep holes shown, from Peter Pollacks The Picture History of Photography, From the Earliest Beginnings to The Present Day, H. N. Abrams, New York, 1969, pp84-85.

---

---

On the left we have what Fox Talbot called The Photographer’s Daughter, from 1844 because she is one of his little girls, Ela Theresa Talbot (1836-1893). Aged eight.

On the right are two others of Ela Theresa in the same year.

---

---

---

---

---

---

After years of heart disease, Talbot died in his study at Lacock Abbey on 17 September 1877 and was buried there. In 1863 Edinburgh University celebrated his life and work by awarding Talbot an honourary doctor of laws degree, as they stated;

---

Plateau had read Roget’s 1824 article Explanation of an Optical Deception in The Appearance of The Spokes of a Wheel (available here to read at Internet Archive) and elected to explore this further. Correspondance Mathématique et Physique by Plateau led to the Anorthoscope.

---

“It has wonderfully surprised many to whom I have showed it and they all refuse to believe their own eyes“

---

The stated law according to MIT in effect says;

---

---

---

He initially uses the term “anorthoscope” in the Notice sur l’anorthoscope in 1836, when he introduces his novel device to the members of the Academy. The brass instrument had two wheels, one larger than the other, on one axis, and was operated by gears.

Here we see how the flying cherub appears without the help of the anorthoscope on top, and when spun on the device in the lower image.

The instrument was made of brass and contained two wheels, one larger than the other, on one axis, and driven by gears. The wheels are interchangeable, so that it is possible to have different relative speeds. Anorthoscope images on the right, are from the J. Plateau Collection, Ghent University.

---

---

---

A rare original 1836 Anorthoscope set, made by Susse including twelve discs was auctioned for $48, 000 US in 2013. The Werner Nekes Collection and the Joseph Plateau Collection at the Science Museum, Ghent University each house two other Anorthoscopes.

In 1834, he was appointed Professor of Veterinary Anatomy, Pathology, and Physiology at the University of Berne. He taught for nearly 50 years, significantly contributing to the training of aspiring veterinarians. Gerber publicised on 2 February 1839 that he had several years earlier (1837), succeeded in fixing the image he obtained in his Camera Obscura. The announcement was made in the ‘Schweizerischer Beobachter’ (Swiss Observer).

---

N.B.
While details of his photographic work are not as widely known as Daguerre’s, it’s clear he was an innovator in the field. Some of his Daguerreotypes, such as a ‘Portrait of a lady,’ are well known. An inconsistency in dates has been found which I will report here before continuing;

P.S.
No mention of Niepce is made regarding 1826.

---

---

Gerber’s work in photography is particularly fascinating because he was an independent inventor of the photographic process, working concurrently with, but separately from, the more widely known pioneers like Louis Daguerre and Nicéphore Niépce.

---

While Daguerre’s Daguerreotype process was publicly announced in 1839 and gained widespread recognition, Gerber was conducting his own research and experiments in Switzerland.

His own declaration in the preface to his 1840 book, Manual of the general anatomy of man and of domestic animals, states that his photographic discoveries were concluded by 1836.

This predates the public announcement of Daguerre’s process and suggests a parallel, rather than derivative, invention.

---

Gerber’s discovery was made public through an announcement in the ‘Schweizerischer Beobachter’ (Swiss Observer) on 19 January 1839.

This means his work was revealed to the public just days after Daguerre’s preliminary announcement in France (7 January 1839), solidifying his place as a very early figure in the field. In 1989, documentation was found at the University of Bern in Switzerland written by Gerber about this same photographic process dated from 1840.

He apparently used a solar microscope on the camera. Pictured is the University of Bern c. 1842.

---

Like Daguerre, Gerber produced Daguerreotypes. These were positive images created on highly polished, silver-plated copper sheets. The process was known for its incredible detail and luminous quality.

The existence of such a piece indicates his practical application of the photographic process. Also found at the University in 1989, were photographs of Bern.

📷 Left: Photograph by Gerber of Bern’s Upper Old Town, c. 1840
📷 Right: Self-portrait

In essence, Andreas Friedrich Gerber was a polymath who made lasting contributions to both veterinary science and the nascent field of photography in the 19th century.

---

“Whatever Gerber’s practical achievements in the camera may have been, they-like Talbot’s-had obviously not yet reached a state of perfection, for in a newspaper article on 9 February a hostile critic pointed out that the only pictures he had seen were ‘excellent copies of small birds’ feathers which no artist could have painted better, and which were produced by laying the feathers on the prepared paper’. The anonymous opponent also claimed that neither Gerber nor Daguerre was the inventor of making pictures by light, which had already been done by ‘Nips’ (Niepce) in France.”

– Gernsheim p10.

Pictured is the University of Bern in Switzerland today.

---

---

---

1837
COLOSSAL MYRIORAMA
JOSEPH POOLE
In 1837 Joseph Poole of Malmesbury owned a travelling show, which was later managed by his sons.They developed the Colossal Myriorama, literally ‘various views,’ an early 19th‑century panoramic show. Long paintings would scroll across the stage, with live narration, music, lighting, and effects—an ancestor to cinema.

By the mid‑1830s, Joseph Poole was already touring public halls and theatre venues in England and Ireland, presenting Moving Panoramas—scrolling painted scenes that created immersive spectacles.

These shows were known as Poole’s Dioramas from circa 1840, before they morphed into Myrioramas later in the century. There’s no specific poster dated 1837 extant, but records show Joseph and his brothers—George, Harry, Charles W.—as active proprietors and scenic artists by the early 1840s.

---

These productions were known for their grand scale—hand‑painted Panoramas several yards long, with dramatic sound effects (gunshots, bells, music), and mechanical cut‑outs to simulate movement. In the 1890s they toured widely in England and Wales from a base in Westport where the scenery was painted.

---

By 1837, the shows would have been electric enough to earn the ‘Colossal’ tag among audiences enthralled by their sweeping visuals and stagecraft—but still under the banner of Poole’s Diorama or the generic term, Moving Panorama. They became so immersive that by the 1850–70s it would be finally repackaged as Colossal Myriorama.

---

---

These are two poster advertisements of the Poole Grand Diorama and the Poole Myiorama. Both are kindly provided by the Athelstan Museum, Malmesbury UK.

---

Over the decades, the success of these early displays led to the formal branding of Poole’s Myriorama, cementing his role as a pioneer of spectacle‑based entertainment. For a hundred-year period between 1837 and 1937, the name Poole dominated pre cinema travelling shows across the UK with their Colossal Myriorama, Panoramas, and Dioramas.

1838 
LOUIS JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE (1787 – 1851)
Is this the oldest known photograph that we have of a human being? Research suggests no. It was taken by Daguérre and was of course, a Daguérreotype. The street is Boulevard du Temple in Paris. Look in the bottom right corner.

In the bottom right corner along the curve can be seen two men; one getting his shoes shined and the other doing the shining. Exposure times in 1838 were 4-5 minutes and required stillness of subject. Perfect for a shoe shine. Research suggests this one took up to 15 minutes.

---

Was it staged by Daguérre? How does 5 minutes turn into 15 and why are the standing man’s legs both dark if he had both shoes shined? Wouldn’t both be greyish? It’s because he never had both shoes shined. Good questions but I digress.

---

---

---

---

From an 1838 map of Paris obtained from Jacques Darcy-Roquencourt, we can see Boulevard du Temple and the corner where the two men stood, boxed in red along with the three-story white-washed building now long gone.

---

The first photographs were taken on metal. Some pewter, some copper. Because of this, Daguérreotypes are mirror images and any copies or prints are reflections of the original.

---

From this photograph taken in the 1960’s we can see a blue curve drawn by Jacques Darcy-Roquencourt down and around the corner of Boulevard du Temple as it was in 1838. It shows where the street used to be.

---

My opening question was, “Is this the oldest known photograph that we have of a human being?” Did Daguérre out-do Daguérre by a year the same way Niépce out-did Niépce by a year?

It appears he did.

This Daguérreotype called ‘Vue du Pont-Neuf’ is in the Museum of Arts and Crafts Paris.

---

If we look closer at the base of the statue of Henry IV at the steps, we see two fellows laying against the fence of this Daguérre Daguérreotype taken between 1837 and 1838. Perhaps a year before the Boulevard du Temple.

Remember, Daguérre was still experimenting throughout the 1830’s.

---

On the back of the ‘Vue du Pont-Neuf’ Daguérreotype is a note by Fernand Langlé, dated 1 February 1879, with a strong suggestion, if not proof, that this Dag of Daguérre’s pre-dates Boulevard du Temple.

Also with two unknown men.

---

1838
BEFORE THE ANNOUNCEMENT
LOUIS JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE (1787-1851)
This Daguerreotype was taken in 1838 by Daguerre himself, of his home. The early Daguerreotypes, as the images taken using Daguerre’s technique would come to be called, required a long exposure time.

---

Here is a colourised caricature from the periodical called Today in 1840 spoofing the exposure time it took for a Daguerreotype.

Along with the short write-up from Gernsheim, it’s all self-explanatory.

---

---

---

In fact, Moigno references Kircher in L’Art des Projections and provides imagery of his Lantern from Ars Magna, along with many other projecting lanterns from other inventors. Pictured here is figure 32 from page 55 of the Moigno book The Art of Projection.

---

---

Here are page 58, figures 36, 37, 38 and page 95, figures 70, 71, 72 of L’Art des Projections.

---

In 1872 Moigno wrote to the Société Française de Photographie telling them about the use of the projecting lantern;

---

Madler was a German astronomer and uses the word photography in a science report he wrote. Throughout the internet and, hard-copy academia, libraries and universities throughout the world I am still seeing Madler as the one who coined the word.

During this period, Sir John Herschel also begins use of the word in his communication on the subject. It will likely take many years before changes are seen. Hercule Florence used the word photography in the French photographie five years before Madler or Herschel.

1839
REFLECTOGRAPHY
FRIEDRICH MARTIN ALBERT ALBRECHT BREYER (1812-1876)
Reflectography, specifically Infrared Reflectography (IRR), is a non-destructive imaging technique widely used in art conservation and art history. It allows conservators and art historians to ‘see beneath’ the visible surface of a painting. When the first news on Daguerre’s discovery reached Belgium in 1839, Albrecht Breyer, a student in Berlin began a relentless process for finding a way of printing photographs.

---

IRR utilizes infrared (IR) radiation, which has a longer wavelength than visible light. Unlike visible light, which is largely absorbed by the pigments on the surface of a painting, infrared light can penetrate many paint layers. When this infrared light reaches the underlying layers, such as the ground or an under drawing (the initial sketch or design the artist made before applying paint), it is either reflected or absorbed. The reflected IR radiation is then captured by a specialized camera (often an InGaAs camera, which is sensitive to a specific range of infrared wavelengths). Breyer began to experiment with silver chloride paper. He wanted to obtain exact impressions from engravings, drawings, and pages printed on both sides, without the use of a camera.

---

Breyer let the light shine through the back of the sensitised paper’s surface, and found the clear type reproduced in reversed position. He was able to see underneath the painting and this led to reflectography.

---

---

By shining an infrared light source such as a Tungsten Halogen bulb at a painting and recording the light reflected back, we can see through the paint and study otherwise invisible elements of the painting and its composition.

---

Breyer was aware of the commercial value of his invention, and he emphasized the possibility of producing copies of written and printed matter, even on perfectly opaque pages without the use of a camera.

He states in the journal L’Espoir;

---

This discovery of Breyer’s “heliographic pages” which we call Reflectography, was first briefly referred to by Swedish photographic historian Helmer Backstrom in the Norilsk Tidskrift for Fotografi published in Stockholm, in 1923.

Born in Edinburgh to a farmer, John Ponton, he was named after the explorer Mungo Park.

---

---

---

1839
WHAT TO CALL THESE NEW PICTURES FROM NATURE
It’s very interesting to see the variety of titles given to the Daguerreotype immediately following the announcement this year. From January to August 1839 no fewer than 18 names have been attributed to the new pictures from nature.

---

An early 1840’s article published in the New York Mirror puts into perspective the prevailing attitude towards this new “refined amusement.” The article appeared in the Fine Arts section and discusses the how-to’s of photography;

The Daguerreotype.– We have seen with no little pleasure the whole process and practice of this new and interesting art, as exhibited by Mr. Gouraud on the principles of Daguerre at the Granite Buildings, corner of Chambers Street and Broadway. The process which is very simple, is minutely explained by Mr. Gouraud, and the time occupied in obtaining a finished proof is something less than one hour.

The highly polished surface of a metallic plate, composed of copper and silver, is first covered with diluted nitric acid, the plate is then placed in a close box over a small vessel of iodine, where it is left ten minutes, and the colour of the plate, originally that of polished silver, is changed to a fine yellow; the plate is then placed in the camera obscura, before the object of which a view is desired, and submitted to the action of light upon its surface; it remains in this position some ten or fifteen minutes (the time governed by the strength of the light and heat,) and is then placed in a close box and submitted to the action of mercury for a few minutes, when the impression is complete.

During the whole process the greatest care is requisite, not only in keeping the surface of the plate free from the slightest touch or contact with any object, but also to keep it from the light.

The great obstacle in the way of taking portraits by the Daguerreotype is the difficulty of keeping the countenance, particularly the eyes, immovable during the time required for the plate to remain in the camera obscura — but it is the expectation of M. Daguerre to bring the art to such a state of perfection that likenesses may be taken as suddenly as a mirror will reflect them. To those who have taste and leisure the Daguerreotype will afford a new source of refined amusement; with the necessary apparatus, a knowledge of the process may be acquired in a few hours. Those who have not time to study the art themselves should not fail to attend Mr. Gouraud’s interesting lectures and exhibition.

_{– The New York Mirror, 15 February, 1840}

1839
ROOM CAMERA OBSCURA RETURNS
A typical outdoor room Camera Obscura is shown in the inaugural edition of the new Magazine of Science this year. It in fact appeared on the front cover and was described as “a favourite amusement to view it’s varied and animating pictures.”

Buy one for your backyard. Is it DIY or was it pre-assembled?

The article described further how the Camera Obscura could be used to form images and how different lenses could be used in place of others.

The writer concluded that the camera room “is of such simple construction as to be easily understood, and represents the objects subjected to it with so unerring a fidelity, and in all their vivid colours . . . . . or it may be made still more easily in that form usually called a Portable Camera, a description of which will appear in our next number.” 

---

---

In the next issue, the magazine made mention of Talbot and Daguerre and their “newly discovered and important process of Photogenic Drawing.”

1839 
SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM HERSCHEL (1792 – 1871)
PASTOR JOSEPH BANCROFT READE (1801-1870)
Herschel meets with Talbot and shows how sodium thiosulfate can fix the image without further blackening. Herschel reports to the Royal Society on this Hypo, as well as on the ways of making copies.

As well, Pastor Reade of Leeds, also announces this year a way to fix the image–suggesting sodium hyposulfite as the answer.

Fascinated by the technology, he met with Daguerre, studied the process, and brought this knowledge back to the US. He experimented with daguerreotypes and is credited with being one of the first Americans to produce photographic images. Morse also taught the daguerreotype process to others, including Mathew Brady, who later became a prominent Civil War photographer. He played a significant role in the development and promotion of photography in the United States.

---

Here on p120 in reference to Samuel Morse, taken from The History of Photography – From the Camera Obscura to The Beginning of The Modern Era, by Helmut and Alison Gernsheim, (Thames and Hudson, London, 1969) we read about the Morse – Daguerre meeting.

---

The earliest camera by Daguerre was brought into the US by Samuel Morse in 1839 and is pictured below. This camera was manufactured by George W. Prosch of Paris in the same year.

It measures twelve by ten and a half by ten and a half inches and resides at the National Museum of American History/Smithsonian.

---

---

While Morse’s primary focus remained on his telegraph work, his engagement with photography was notable for its time, especially given the novelty of the medium.

1839
WILLIAM HENRY FOX TALBOT (1800-1877)
LOUIS JACQUES MANDE DAGUERRE (1787-1851)
Both announce to the world that they have individually and independently, further advanced the fixing of a photograph.

The Daguérre Daguérreotype process receives the wider attention and prominence than Talbot’s Calotype/Talbotype, and is announced by the French legislator François Arago officially to the world.

---

The invention of the Daguérreotype process was announced by the French legislator François Arago in 1839 and was widely acclaimed. This video is called simply, The Daguérreotype and is produced by the Victoria and Albert Museum.

It runs two minutes. Sadly, no mention of Nicéphore Niépce who fixed View from the Window at Le Gras from blackening in 1826, by washing the Bitumen off the plate following exposure.

---

---

---

In 1839 Ponton found sodium dichromate was sensitive to light. He elected not to patent his findings, a mistake made by others, then published his discovery in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.

Then on 29 May he offered his results to the Society of Arts for Scotland.

---

WATCH how a Gum Bichromate photograph is developed and see it come to life in this three minute twenty-five second video produced and uploaded by Artur Jonauskas.

---

Ponton received a silver medal from the Society of Arts for Scotland in 1845 for his method of determining the temperature fluctuation of photographic paper on an hourly basis.

Without the contributions of people like Ponton, the field of photography may not be the same today. As a caretaker of light, Ponton is remembered who although he may have been somewhat forgotten, gave us important gifts to this art form called photography.

---

“for as you can observe, the face and hands of the gentleman are beginning to decay”

---

---

Feeling unappreciated for his photographic work and unrecognised when the announcement of the Daguerreotype was made, Bayard played what he thought was a humorous trick on the world while also making his disappointment known.

Bayard decided to portray himself as drowned, in a hoax photograph shown here in a direct-positive. He was clearly protesting the lack of attention he was awarded in the François Arago announcement that favoured Daguerre.

---

Despite this, Bayard continued his research and sent letters to the Academy of Sciences explaining three photographic formulations.

Bayard is best remembered for his 1840 drowned man self-portrait above all his work. It would appear then, that his hoax photograph back-fired and history has forgotten him for this very reason. Had his work stood on it’s own, perhaps he may have been remembered in a much better light.

On the reverse side of the printed photo he wrote;

“The corpse which you see here is that of M. Bayard, inventor of the process that has just been shown to you. As far as I know this indefatigable experimenter has been occupied for about three years with his discovery. The Government which has been only too generous to Monsieur Daguerre, has said it can do nothing for Monsieur Bayard, and the poor wretch has drowned himself.

Oh the vagaries of human life!

He has been at the morgue for several days, and no-one has recognized or claimed him. Ladies and gentlemen, you’d better pass along for fear of offending your sense of smell, for as you can observe, the face and hands of the gentleman are beginning to decay.”

Despite playing a lesser role internationally, Bayard remained a successful and prolific member of the French photographic community.

---

---

I would however, place Bayard right alongside Daguerre, having developed his own direct positive process at the same time. Daguerre was far more assertive in desiring the distinction of inventor.

Left: Windmills of Montmartre, 1842, Hippolyte Bayard. Salted paper print. Dimensions 9 and 5/8 × 6 and 7/16 inches. Getty Museum.

Right: Still Life with Statuettes, Medallion, and Curtain, 1839, Hippolyte Bayard. Direct positive print. Dimensions five and a quarter by five and one sixteenth inches. Getty Museum.

---

In 1863 Bayard was decorated the highest honour one can receive in France—Chevalier—a bone that was thrown to him by the Légion d’honneur. Below, Rue Royale et Restes des Barricades de 1842 by Bayard. A gelatin silver print, Nº 12 from the portfolio Bayard: XXV Calotypes, Art Institute Chicago.

---

---

Some research shows the Daguerreotype of Dorothy was taken on the roof of the school. Other reports say it was taken in his New York University studio, perhaps with a skylight.

ARTOTYPE / AUTOTYPE
Any photograph we see of Dorothy is in fact a copy Daguerreotype or Artotype copy, or Collotype, and not the original. Including the digitized ones shown here, and above.

---

This Artotype was made by Dr. Draper’s son Daniel while the original was being displayed at the 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Then, later in the 1930s the original Daguerreotype was damaged during an attempt at restoration.

Below, a library copy with note reading;

---

Dorothy sat for a sixty-five-second exposure: her face dusted with flour to enhance contrast. The original Artotype resides at the Spencer Museum of Art in Lawrence, Kansas. Below, courtesy of the museum is Portrait of Dorothy Catherine Draper (Kansas State Historical Society).

---

These three pages below are referring to J. W. Draper and his Daguerreotype-taking process. They are from The History of Photography – From the Camera Obscura to The Beginning of The Modern Era (Helmut and Alison Gernsheim, Thames and Hudson, London, 1969), on pp121,125.

---

John W. Draper has the distinction of having taken this photograph of the moon in 1840, the earliest surviving Daguerreotype of the Earth’s only satellite.

---

---

---

One of the first daguerreotype images of England was captured sometime between September and December 1839, by Frenchman Monsieur de St Croix when he was in London showcasing Louis Daguerre’s innovative photographic method.

Almost everything seen in this picture is now gone, with the exception of Le Sueur’s statue of Charles I riding a horse, in the foreground, and the Inigo Jones Banqueting House in the distance.

This image has been reversed to show the scene as it was when taken, because Daguerreotypes only produce reversed views.

---

---

An early 1840’s article published in the New York Mirror puts into perspective the prevailing attitude towards this new “refined amusement.” The article appeared in the Fine Arts section and discusses the how to’s;

The Daguerreotype.— “We have seen with no little pleasure the whole process and practice of this new and interesting art, as exhibited by Mr. Gouraud on the principles of Daguerre at the Granite Buildings, corner of Chambers Street and Broadway.

The process which is very simple is minutely explained by Mr. Gouraud, and the time occupied in obtaining a finished proof is something less than one hour. The highly polished surface of a metallic plate, composed of copper and silver, is first covered with diluted nitric acid, the plate is then placed in a close box over a small vessel of iodine, where it is left ten minutes, and the colour of the plate, originally that of polished silver, is changed to a fine yellow; the plate is then placed in the camera obscura, before the object of which a view is desired, and submitted to the action of light upon its surface; it remains in this position some ten or fifteen minutes (the time governed by the strength of the light and heat,) and is then placed in a close box and submitted to the action of mercury for a few minutes, when the impression is complete.

During the whole process the greatest care is requisite, not only in keeping the surface of the plate free from the slightest touch or contact with any object, but also to keep it from the light. The great obstacle in the way of taking portraits by the Daguerreotype is the difficulty of keeping the countenance, particularly the eyes, immovable during the time required for the plate to remain in the camera obscura — but it is the expectation of M. Daguerre to bring the art to such a state of perfection that likenesses may be taken as suddenly as a mirror will reflect them.

To those who have taste and leisure the Daguerreotype will afford a new source of refined amusement; with the necessary apparatus, a knowledge of the process may be acquired in a few hours. Those who have not time to study the art themselves should not fail to attend Mr. Gouraud’s interesting lectures and exhibition.”

^{– The New York Mirror, 15 February 1840}

---

Apparatus and equipment for making Daguerreotypes, from an advertisement published in 1843.

---

Here is a portion of Giroux et Cie’s first advertisement for the Daguerreotype Manual and their Daguerreotype Camera, published in 1839. Also a Daguerreotype process image by Susanna Celeste Cas.

---

The partnership contract signed by Niépce (seated in an 1829 depiction) and Daguerre (standing) stipulated: “In the eventuality of one of the partner’s demise, he will be replaced in the company for the next ten years by his natural heir.”

Isidore succeeded his father. Contract image from the Janine Niépce (1921-2007) Collection. Janine Niépce was a distant cousin of the finaliser of photography, Nicéphore Niépce.

The word photography is a combination of the Greek root words photo, meaning light, and graphia, meaning writing or drawing. Thus, photography literally means writing or drawing with light.

Photograph of a Mexican Violetear Hummingbird by Chris Morgan.

---

TOP
CHAPTER ELEVEN

Welcome	About	Introduction	Chapter One beginning of time – 999 AD
Chapter Two 1000 AD – 1399	Chapter Three 1400 – 1599	Chapter Four 1600 – 1649	Chapter Five 1650 – 1699
Chapter Six 1700 – 1749	Chapter Seven 1750 – 1799	Chapter Eight 1800 – 1819	Chapter Nine 1820 – 1829
Chapter Ten 1830 – 1839	Chapter Eleven 1840 – 1849	Chapter Twelve 1850 – 1859	Chapter Thirteen 1860 – 1869
Chapter Fourteen 1870 – 1879	Chapter Fifteen 1880 – 1884	Chapter Sixteen 1885 – 1889	Chapter Seventeen 1890 – 1894
Chapter Eighteen 1895 – 1899	Chapter Nineteen 1900 + post cinema	Chapter Twenty 1911 +	Copyright
HOTDOC Internet Archive Channel	HOTDOC X Channel	HOTDOC You Tube Channel

Powered by planetelcommunications

© 1990 – 2025

About

Email